Humanism
Alison Cooper
'00
Humanism is a branch of psychology that emphasizes the study of the entire person and how their behavior connects with their inner feelings and self-image (Penny, et al., no date). Coined as the "third force" in psychology during the late 1950s, humanism emerged as a contrast to the more behavioral and psychoanalytic explanations for an individual’s personality (Humanistic Theories, no date; Description, no date). Today, humanistic psychology’s influence is evident in therapy and education methods, politics, philosophy, and societies perception of the individual and the human experience (Description, no date).
With a basis in the philosophy and theology, humanistic psychology seeks to understand and describe an individual rather than "explain" or try to predict its behaviors (Neft, 1999; Penny, et al., no date). To be truly understood, an individual cannot be limited to psychological mechanisms, biological processes, or their environment (Penny, et al., no date; Neft, 1999). In order to create an accurate and complete description, humanistic psychologists study the meanings, understandings, and experiences involved in how an individual grows and learns as well as the characteristics all humans share such as caring, grief, love, and self-worth (Penny, et al., no date; Neft, 1999). This holistic approach considers a person as more than the value of their different parts (Penny, et al., no date).
Humanists explore how an individuals thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and interpretation of the world in addition to their conscious choices, responses to internal needs, and current environment affect their behavior (Penny, et al., no date). According to humanists, humans, unlike animals, are not governed by their instincts. Free will, self-awareness, and an ability to make conscious choices enables humans to defy their psychological and biological foundations to create their own life (Penny, et al., no date; Neft, 1999). According to Maslow’s motivation theory, both internal and external forces control human behavior. Humans have the unique ability to make choices and exercise free-will (Description, no date).
This ability to make choices also allows an individual to deliberately seek out value and meaning. How an individual chooses to find such meaning or value determines their personal identity, which distinguishes them from other people. How an individual views their "self" further influences their behavior as well as providing insight into their emotional state, well-being and judgement. Ultimately, individuals are internally motivated to fulfill their potential (Penny, et al., no date). Although humanistic psychology acknowledges negative and destructive internal forces, it does not de-emphasize an individual’s independent dignity, worth, and their capacity to develop competence and self-respect (AHP, 1996). In order to reach the highest level of self understanding and development, an individual needs three essential components: self-actualization, self-fulfillment, and self-realization (Penny, et al., no date).
Inspired by Zen Buddhism and Taoism, Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) asserted that humans have basic physiological, psychological, and growth needs that must be satisfied before an individuals’ self-actualization could be addressed. Through the study of outstanding individuals, Maslow developed a triangle shaped model called the hierarchy of needs to describe certain human needs that were unchanging, genetic in origin, the same in all cultures, and are both psychological and physiological (Description, no date). He believed every individual was capable and had to the desire to be self-actualized. Unfortunately, an individual’s progress to the highest level could be obstructed by their failure to satisfy such basic needs as food, sleep, safety and growth needs such as love, esteem, and understanding due to ones life experiences. Maslow believed only one in ten individuals became fully-actualized (Explanation, no date).
From his observations, Maslow developed a list of 12 characteristics most commonly seen in self-actualized people. These individuals are able to accurately perceive their world (1), accept themselves, others and nature (2); are spontaneous and natural (3), have a sense of mission (4), enjoy their privacy (5), and can appreciate life (6). Such individuals are also said to have peak experiences, or moments of intense ecstasy in which the self is transcended or unaware of their surroundings, like that of mystic or religious experiences (7). Self-actualized individuals also exhibit social interest (8), tend to attract admirers (9), display little social, religious, or racial prejudice (10); are creative (11), and are self-sufficient and autonomous of their culture (12) (Maslow, no date).
In Carl Rogers’ "self-centered" theory, an individual perceives the world according to their own experiences. These perceptions affect their personality and direct them to use their behavior to satisfy the needs of their total self. As an individual’s personality develops, they strive for self-actualization, or to become oneself; self-maintenance, or to keep being oneself; and self-enhancement, or to transcend the everyday (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1994-2000). Rogers believed the ideal human condition was embodied in the "fully-functioning person" or one that is open to new experiences, trusts themselves, openly expresses feelings, is independent and creative, and lives a richer life (Pescitelli, 1996). Regardless of which theory is endorsed or how self-understanding is achieved, ultimately, an individual is capable of making choices for themselves (Penny, et al., no date).
Humanistic psychology emerged in the mid-1950s in a time dominated by behaviorist and psychoanalytic philosophies. Rather than focusing purely on internal motivations or external behavior, humanists desired to study the values, intentions, meanings, and experiences of what it means to be human (APA, 1996; Penny, et al., no date; Description, no date). Attempting to emphasize the need for psychology to focus on human potential rather than deficiencies, several theorists succeeding in promoting the humanist approach. In 1949, Snyggs and Combs helped develop the field of phenomenology, or the belief that a person will behave in a way that is consistent with how an individual perceives the event. Humanistic psychologists have since used this belief to help take into account a person’s perceptions of an event when describing human behavior (Penny, et al., no date)
In 1954, Morris asserted that humans are aware of their thought processes and are able to criticize it and correct it in order to better themselves (Penny, et al., no date). Carl Rogers developed the influential client or person-centered therapy in addition to an educational philosophy emphasizing the importance of the development of personal meaning during the learning process in a specific emotional climate (Pescitelli, 1996; Penny, et al, no date). In 1962, the humanistic movement came to the forefront with the publication of Abraham Maslow’s book, Toward the Psychology of Being, in which he defined humanistic psychology as the "third force" in his book, and the establishment of the Association of Humanistic Psychology, or AHP (Warmoth, 1996; Neft, no date).
During the 1960s and 70s, humanistic psychology shaped middle class American culture under the guise of the Human Potential Movement (Warmoth, 1996).
In addition to being recognized as a division of the American Psychological Association (APA) society as well as attracting fellow theorists and therapy styles, such as Gestalt therapy, the so-called Anti-psychiatry Movement, and transpersonal psychology, that embrace humanistic ideals (Neft, 1999). Humanistic psychology is also considered to be philosophically aligned with the post-modern philosophy of science, structuralism, constructivist epistemology, the psych-spiritual wing of the peace movement, green politics, the feminist and gay rights movement, and deconstructionism (AHP, 1996). The influence of humanistic psychology, however, is most clearly seen in the practice of Carl Rogers ’client or person-centered therapy and education (Humanistic Theories, no date).
Compared to psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology is built on the study of the emotional dynamic of "healthy individuals" rather than "neurotic people" (Neft, 1999). It emphasizes that psychotherapy is equally relevant to relatively healthy individuals who sought to explore the farther reaches of their potential as a human (AHP, 1996). This approach transformed the field of psychotherapy, broke down the social stigma attached to "therapy" and demonstrated the extent of the differences between the humanistic psychology and that of behavioral and psychodynamic approaches (AHP, 1996; Humanistic Theories, no date).
Rogers’ person or client-centered therapy asserts that an individual’s intrinsic tendency toward self-actualization can be explored in a therapeutic relationship in which the therapist provides personal consistency, unconditional positive regard, and realistic empathetic understanding (AHP, 1996). Rather than permitting the therapist to determine an individual’s appropriate treatment, this therapy allows clients to follow their internal drive to move toward healing and growth and discover their own answers by controlling the content and the pace of the therapy (APA, no date; Ryan, no date). The ultimate goal of humanistic therapy is to delve deep into the lives and minds of their clients to understand the power of those irrational needs over one’s behavior (Humanistic Theories, no date; APA, no date).
Humanistic principles were first applied to education by A. S Neill at Summerhill, a school in England where students were given the freedom to study and attend lessons when they chose. According to reports made by the British Ministry of education, students were energetic, responsible, and took the initiative in their studies. Despite these results, several parents chose to remove their children after the age of 13 because they believed the academic preparation they received was inadequate. In the United States, Rogers’ and Maslow’s work enabled the growth of the humanistic movement and eventually the open education program, based on the principles of humanistic education, which became popular in the 1970s (Penny, et al., no date).
The humanistic approach contends that students have a need to become self-actualized adults or self-directed, confident, mature, realistic, flexible, and accepting of themselves and others. This can be achieved through the five basic principles of humanistic education. First, students will be motivated to learn material if it they desire to learn it and are able to choose it themselves. Second, education should desire to foster children’s desire to learn and provide guidance on how they can learn on their own. Third, humanistic educators believe that self-evaluation is a more meaningful assessment than grades. Rather than working for personal satisfaction, grading instead encourages students to work for a grade. Humanistic educators also oppose the use of tests because it encourages memorization and does not accurately convey what a child may know (Penny, et al., no date).
Fourth, unlike in traditional methods, feelings and knowledge are given equal importance. Lastly, learning is easier and more meaningful when students are able to feel secure in a non-threatening environment. Mostly commonly practiced in open classrooms, the effects of humanistic education are inconclusive. Research shows only slight positive effects in non-academic areas such as self-esteem and attitude toward school and slightly negative effects on academic achievement (Penny, et.al, no date).
Critics of humanistic psychology claim its concepts are too vague and too dependent on subjective data such as what an individual may be experiencing. Conclusions and research based on such data are therefore considered unreliable, hard to verify, unobjective, and unscientific (Penny, et al., no date). According to the Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP), rather than limiting research or methods to what can be directly perceived or publicly measured, their attention to values such as culture and responsibility implies their commitment to the use of research to create access to all dimensions of human existence. Assuming direct measure is the sole means to gain knowledge suggests that these values lack greater significance or interpretation. Humanistic psychology strongly supports the use of phenomenological and clinical methods as well as the discovery of novel research approaches to further the understanding of the human experience (AHP, 1996).
In comparison, one of its greatest strengths is the emphasis and value placed on individual choice and responsibility, personal ideals, and self-fulfillment. Its consideration of the individual in relation to their environment and personal perceptions and feelings provides researchers with a flexible framework in which to observe behavior (Penny, et.al, no date). Humanistic psychology also offers a large range of more effective methods in professional psychotherapy methods (AHP, 1996).
Despite limitations in research and objective data, humanistic psychology encouraged the growth of new therapy and education methods, and the understanding of social concerns and the human condition. Humanistic psychology offers an alternative to theories that limit their focus on specific human characteristics and recognizes that an individual is vital in the study of personality (Pescitelli, 1996).
Reference List
American Psychological Association. No date given. Position Statements.
Association for Humanistic Psychology. 1996. About Humanistic Psychology.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 1994-2000. Humanistic Psychology.
Neft, Flemming Ravn. 1999. Neft’s Homepage on Humanistic Psychology..
Penny, K., Perlow. A, and C. Ruscitto. No date given. What is Humanistic Psychology?.
Penny, K., Perlow. A, and C. Ruscitto. No date given. Origins and Evolution of Humanistic Psychology. Humanistic Psychology. .
Penny, K., Perlow. A, and C. Ruscitto. No date given. Humanistic Views of Human Behavior. .
Penny, K., Perlow. A, and C. Ruscitto. No date given. Role of the Self in Humanistic Thinking. .
Penny, K., Perlow. A, and C. Ruscitto. No date given. Contributors to the Growth of Humanistic Psychology. .
Penny, K., Perlow. A, and C. Ruscitto. No date given. Criticisms and Strengths of Humanistic Psychologyof Humanistic Psychology. .
Penny, K., Perlow. A, and C. Ruscitto. No date given. The Humanistic Movement in Education. .
Penny, K., Perlow. A, and C. Ruscitto. No date given. Roots of the Humanistic Movement in Education. .
Penny, K., Perlow. A, and C. Ruscitto. No date given. Principles of Humanistic Education.
Penny, K., Perlow. A, and C. Ruscitto. No date given. Open Classrooms: Humanistic Education in Practice.
Pescitelli, Dagmar. 1996. An Analysis of Carl Rogers’ Theory of Personality.
Pescitelli, Dagmar. 1996. Rogerian Therapy.
Ryan, Matthew. No date. Client-Centered Therapy.
Warmoth, Arthur. 1996. Humanistic Psychology and Humanistic Social Science.
